1000010 1010010 1001111 1001111 1001011 1010011

The computer has become an integral part of our lives today. It is hard to imagine what life would be like without its influence. In fact in 1981, the year I was born, the first IBM PC's were rolling off the assembly line. These crude first computers were a far cry from the Pentium packed PCs I use virtually every day to do homework, surf the Internet and play games on today. Right now, we are caught up in the middle of a technical revolution. One can only imagine what the future will bring. Our generation grew up with the technology. It was all we knew from the beginning. This paper discusses the evolution of computers and how as a tool they have influenced society in the past and present and some predictions about what may be in store for us in years to come.

In 1959, all the computer companies started using transistors instead of vacuum tubes. This important development made them known as the second generation. (Parker 71) In 1954, the third generation began when IBM announced the System/360 line, a family of six upward compatibility computers. (Sanders 39) Each one of these computers varied in level of power, but they all ran the same software. This was revolutionary. They used integrated circuits (IC) which replaced the transistors. (Parker 73) Computers were starting to be used for non-scientific reasons. Software was being developed. Programming languages were being improved upon and new ones like BASIC and COBOL were being formed. Programmers made computers answer questions about baseball, write poetry, tutor medical students, imitate three person social interaction, control a medical hand and prove theorems in geometry. Researchers created many amazing programs for artificial intelligence, such as Weizenbaum's Eliza program that made the computer imitate a therapist. They also taught the computer to chat in English, learn from conversations and use algebra to solve story problems. (Walter 529) They made it learn the encyclopedia, answer military questions and find underlying concepts. The first chess program was also invented and it could play against humans competitively. (Walter 528) In universities, social sciences used computers to analyze statistics. The first airline passenger reservation system called Sabre and a communications satellite named Telstar started being used. (Parker 73) It was in this period that word processing was born. (Parker 76)

Computers were catching on and many schools and businesses were buying them. Pretty soon, the hard copy terminals and punch cards were being replaced with CRT screens, all of which were monochrome or green. After all what did you need color for? Computers were beginning to play a big "behind the scene" role in the everyday lives of people. Even so, the world just was not ready for personal computing, yet. (Walter 529)

Then in the early seventies, a series of events occurred which directly led to the popularity of the "personal computer." Intel invented the first microprocessor that produced an entire CPU on a single silicon chip. These microchips could be mass-produced cheaply and were put into a multitude of products such as hand held calculators, digital watches, electronic toys, and household appliances like microwaves and coffee makers. (Boraiko 421) It is said that today the average person comes in contact with over 100 of these said "microchips" in every day life before they eat lunch. These microchips made it possible to build inexpensive computer systems. (Boraiko 421)

The first PC was actually built at Xerox PARC in 1972. Its name was ALTO. To make a computer user friendly, they decided to create a computer screen based on pictures that you could simply point a mouse to open programs and manipulate them. Later these ideas were borrowed from Apple to create Macintosh and Microsoft to create Windows. (Kaku 23)

In 1975, the first popular microcomputer, Altair 8800, was advertised in Popular Electronics. It was manufactured by MITS. It had a 2 MHz CPU and 1/4K RAM. It was a box with 25 switches and 36 blinking lights. There was no printer, screen or keyboard. It didn't understand BASIC. The computer came in a kit that had to be assembled with some electronic diagrams and a soldering gun. (Walter 530) Soon companies invented cards for the computer so it could have more memory and use input and output devices like the keyboard and printer. Bill Gates wrote a version of BASIC that the Altair could understand. (Gates 16)

In 1976, Steve Jobs, 21, ad Steve Wozniak, 26, formed the Apple Computer Company in Jobs' parents garage after no one would listen to their idea. They developed the Apple I computer, which sold for $666. (Walter 65) Later developed the popular Apple II computer. It could be hooked to your color television set. It was used by many schools throughout the 1980's and became the standard for education. (Walter 65) In 1984, they introduced Macintosh, which used a mouse, icons and pull down menus. (Walter 67)

Other companies like Radio Shack, Texas Instruments, Commodore, Osborne, Atari and Xerox developed personal computers as well. (Willis 151) These computers marked the fourth generation. Even though each one had some strong points, in the end, none of them would prosper. IBM, which once laughed at the idea of personal computing, secretly worked on its own model after seeing the popularity of the personal computer. It had a 4.77 MHz Intel CPU and 16K RAM. It was also affordable. The IBM PC was a success. (Walter 531) IBM figured out what the customers wanted and they combined all the best ideas of all the manufactures. They also promoted programmers to write software for the computer. This IBM PC became the basis of almost all personal computers today. (Gates 50) Its name became synonymous with business. The IBM PC's used PC-DOS, which was a disk operating system developed by Microsoft and IBM. (Gates 48) This system used commands to run and it was not graphical like the Macintosh. It was not as easy to use.

Computers became an important part of business. The first spreadsheet was developed and it assisted people who routinely prepare time-consuming budgets and profit and loss statements. They helped to provide better customer service and assisted in decision making. They were used for accounting, bookkeeping, inventory, and financial planning. They were a means to help enterprises handle transactions and enable people to better perform their jobs. Computers were being used for design like graphics for advertising, sports, news and weather on television, magazine covers and layouts, newsletters, consumer products, packages, building and floor plans, cars and planes, and corporate logos. (Parker 27-33) Computer generated graphics popped up on the big screen in movies like Star Wars. (Negroponte 123) Automated Teller Machines (ATM) made it possible to take money out of a bank account with a card 24 hours a day. The supermarkets became automated with computerized checkouts. Robots became widely used by manufacturing to perform tasks considered too monotonous, time consuming or dangerous for humans. (Parker 32)

In the late 1970’s, the Pentagon’s Advanced Research Projects Agency started working on some military projects driven by the Cold War. They were the basis of what was to become teleconferencing, virtual reality, Global Positioning System satellites and email. They also came up with ARPANET, a means to link up scientists and universities. It originally linked four universities. (Kaku 46)

In the early 1990's, Microsoft introduced Windows 3.0, a version of its graphical user interface (GUI) that actually worked well. Intel came out with its Pentium processor. This significantly influenced the renewed hype in the PC marketplace. Multimedia was born with the installation of CD-ROMs and sound cards in computers. Color monitors were replacing monochrome ones. Computer prices were slashed due to price wars between manufactures. People were buying the latest upgrades. (Walter 532) When the Cold War ended, the ARPANET became the Internet. The World Wide Web was created and there were roughly 5,000 online users in 1991. (Stout 4)

The way these new computers were used was much more complex than that of its predecessors. Computers were no longer a fun toy to play a game on, a chapter in a science fiction novel, or a behind the scenes way of life. They were popping up everywhere and being used for everything imaginable. (Swerdow 4) Imaging process software helped astronomers save blurry photographs from the broken Hubble Space Telescope before it was fixed. Computer aided design (CAD) was used to entirely design the Boeing 777. Car companies like Chrysler started designing entire cars and using computerized models and simulations. For educational purposes, computers ran experiments, analyze data, and wrote papers in ways that could not have been imagined before. Multimedia brought learning to a new level. People were overwhelmed by a wealth of data never available to them before so easily; an entire encyclopedia could fit on a couple of CD-ROMs. Computers also helped people do tasks they would not normally be able to do. For instance, Stephen Hawking, a scientist with degenerative muscle disease was able to talk by aid of a computer. Doctors were able to do CAT scans allowing exploratory surgery without cutting open the body. During the Gulf War, the government designed advanced computerized missiles and weapons. (Byte 1-5)

The personal computers of today are much more powerful than could have been imagined before. They have microphones, small video cameras, scanners, TV cards, 19" monitors, 17 GB Hard Drives, CD-ROMs that spin 40 times faster than the original models, faster modems and 100MB ZIP disks because our files are so large. (McDonald 1) Computers are running improved versions of 32-bit Windows operating system, like Windows 95 or 98. Bill Gates is now the richest man in the world. The new Pentium III processor runs at a whopping 500mhz. Laptops are common and so are cellular phones. Put them together and you can connect anywhere. The biggest growth has been in the Internet, though. You can not go anywhere or do anything without hearing about "www.com." Today the total number of Internet users is roughly 40 million in over 180 countries. There is a wealth of information available at our fingertips on any subject desired. You can play poker with someone in Europe or chat with a girl, who is going to college in Florida, or watch and listen to a live concert. Many people have personal web sites with pictures and sound as well as text. You can purchase anything from cars to books online, check the weather, watch the news, trade stocks, download software and get travel information. Email has drastically replaced using the post office a.k.a. "snail mail" to send letters and documents. It has become a means of communicating with each other, almost instantly. Business use networks to rapidly exchange pertinent information with each other, teleconferencing, device sharing and to get work done faster. Complex databases help keep track of mailing lists and customer information. The web allows a new medium to advertise and sell products. Business is booming on the web. Crude forms of voice recognition, optical character recognition and virtual reality applications are readily available. Games have improved graphics and sound. Deep Blue, an IBM RS/6000 computer beat the world’s greatest chess player Garry Kasparov. Everyday computers produce new improvements in our lives that make them impossible to resist. (Life 168)

From 1950 to the present, there has been an increase of computer power by a factor of about 10 billion. Moore’s Law, developed by Gordon Moore the cofounder of Intel, states that computer power doubles every eighteen months. Computers are already 130,000 times smarter than when silicon chips were introduced in 1971. Using this law, we can predict the future of computer technology for about 15 more years. In fifteen years computers will be 1,000 times more powerful than today. (Life 170) The concept of Moore’s Law is based on the ability to cram as many transistors onto a microprocessor as possible. (Kaku 28)

It is difficult to predict the future, because what seems impossible to us now, may very well be reality tomorrow. Some predictions actually do come true.

According to Visions, in the future "microprocessors will be as cheap as scrap paper." They will be a part of everything. Computers will someday become one with the objects around us. They will "disappear into the fabrics of our lives, and be incorporated into the walls, the furniture, our appliances, our home, our car, even our jewelry." Instead of being the horrible monsters as portrayed in science fiction, they will "be invisible, everywhere and nowhere, so powerful they will disappear from view." As an analogy, he goes on to comment about electricity and how it is all around us, hidden and how we do not really think about it much. In the future, we will able to interact with the computers. Sensors will pick up voice commands. Hidden cameras in computers will be able to locate our presence and recognize our facial gestures. Electronic fields may detect the location of our hands and body. Smart cars will use radar to sense the presence of other cars. They will monitor driving and driving conditions. Someday they may even drive themselves. Infrared light sensors will be able to locate where we are by heat. Computers will communicate with each other and with the internet via radio and microwaves. We may use smart paper to write on, and flat wall size screens for interactive TV, surfing the web, and teleconferencing. We may wear our computers. In the future, smart cards may replace ATM cards, telephone cards, bus passes, cash transactions and vending machines. They will store your medical history, insurance records, passport information and photos. Seizing the Future talks of a "cybernetic factories" which will combine computers and robots to turn out high quantities of goods. (Zey 22) Virtual Reality may also play a big role in the future of computing. (Zey 278) We may have better medicine, bionic limbs and eyes through the aid of computers in the future. (Zey 177) Bill Gates talks of the computerized home. (Gates 205) Maybe Y2K, the date problem, will be the end of the world and we will not have to worry about computers anymore. That is unlikely according to International Data Corporation who predicts that only "a mere two-tenths of one percent of Y2K bugs will cause business-critical problems." (Greene 2)

In conclusion, the computer is a very powerful tool that makes our lives better. It has played a significant role in shaping our society through almost all its avenues from business to pleasure. By offering us information, it gives us one of the most powerful assets we can obtain, knowledge.

Bibliography

Boraiko, Allen. "The Chip." National Geographic. October 1982: 420-56.

Computer Chronicles. From Stone to Silicon. March 6, 1999.

<http://despina.advanced.org>

Gates, Bill. The Road Ahead. New York: Penguin Books USA, 1995.

Greene, Vicki. "The Y2K Effect Will Be Minimal." IDC Predicts Major Web

Portal Shakeout, Men Become the New Internet Minority and Web

Access in Retail Stores. December 30, 1998. International Data

Kaku, Michio. Visions. New York: Doubleday, 1997.

McDonald, Glenn. "The Way it Was: 1998." PC World News. December

30, 1998. PC World. March 6, 1999. <http://www.pcworld.com>

Negroponte, Nicholas, Being Digital. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.

Parker, Charles S., Understanding Computers and Information Processing:

Today & Tomorrow. Orlando: Dryden Press, 1990.

Swerdlow, Joel. "Information Revolution." National Geographic. October

1995: 4-36.

"Twenty Contributions to Society." Byte. September 1995: 131-32.

"2000-3000. The World As It Will Be." Life. Fall 1997: 168-170.

Sanders, Donald. Computers Today. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.

Stout, Rick. "An Introduction to the Web." The World Wide Web Complete

Reference. Berkeley: Osborne-McGraw Hill, 1996.

Walter, Russ. The Secret Guide to Computers. 17^th ed. Somerville, MA:

Russ Walter, 1993.

Willis, Jerry and Merl Miller. Computers for Everybody. Beaverton, OR:

Dilithium Press, 1983.

Zey, Michael G., PhD. Seizing the Future. New York: Simon & Shuster,

1994.